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Abstract
Background and Objectives The severity of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) varies widely and is associated with intellectual disability (ID) and brain dysmorphology. We tested the hypothesis that the heterogeneity of ASD can be accounted for, in part, by altered associative learning measured by eye-blink conditioning (EBC) paradigms, used to test for forebrain and cerebellar dysfunction across the full range of ASD severity and intellectual ability.
Methods Children in this cohort study were diagnosed with ASD or typical development (TD); most children were recruited from a 10-year longitudinal study. Outcome measures were the percentage and timing of conditioned eye-blink responses (CRs) acquired to a tone, recorded photometrically and related to measures of ASD severity, IQ, and age 2 brain morphometry by MRI. A sequence of trace and delay EBC was used. Analysis of variance, t test, and logistic regression (LR) were used.
Results Sixty-two children were studied at school age. Nine children with ASD with ID since age 2 (ASD + ID; IQ = 49 ± 6; 11.9 ± 0.2 years old [±SD]) learned more slowly than 30 children with TD (IQ = 120 ± 16; 10.5 ± 1.5 years old [±SD]) during trace EBC and showed atypically early-onset CRs (1.4 SD pre-TD) related to hypoplasia of the cerebellum at age 2 but not of the amygdala, hippocampus, or cerebral cortex. Conversely, 16 children with ASD with robust intellectual development since age 2 (IQ = 100 ± 3; 12.0 ± 0.4 years old [±SD]) learned typically but showed early-onset CRs only during long-delay EBC (0.8 SD pre-TD) unrelated to hypoplasia of any measured brain area. Using 16 EBC measures, binary LR classified ASD and TD with 80% accuracy (95% CI = 72–88%), 81% sensitivity (95% CI = 69–92%), and 79% specificity (95% CI = 68–91%); multinomial LR more accurately classified children based on ID (94% accuracy, 95% CI = 89–100%) than ASD severity (85% accuracy, 95% CI = 77–93%). Separate analyses of 39 children with MRI (2.1 ± 0.3 years old [±SD]) indicated that cerebellar hypoplasia did not predict ASD + ID over ages 2–4 (Cohen d = 0.3) compared with early-onset CRs during age 11 trace EBC (Cohen d = −1.3).
Discussion Trace EBC reveals the relationship between cerebellar hypoplasia and ASD + ID likely by engaging cerebrocerebellar circuits involved in intellectual ability and implicit timing. Follow-up prospective studies using associative learning can determine whether ID can be predicted in children with early ASD diagnoses.
Glossary
- ASD=
- autism spectrum disorder;
- CS=
- conditioned stimulus;
- DAS=
- Differential Abilities Scale;
- EBC=
- eye-blink conditioning;
- ID=
- intellectual disability;
- LR=
- logistic regression;
- MSEL=
- Mullen Scales of Early Learning;
- TD=
- typical development;
- US=
- unconditioned stimulus
Footnotes
Go to Neurology.org/N for full disclosures. Funding information and disclosures deemed relevant by the authors, if any, are provided at the end of the article.
Previously published at medRxiv, https://doi.org/10.1101/2021.03.26.21254368.
Submitted and externally peer reviewed. The handling editor was Renee Shellhaas, MD, MS.
- Received March 9, 2021.
- Accepted in final form September 15, 2022.
- © 2022 American Academy of Neurology
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